Which author is associated with four key characteristics of working-class pupils, including fatalism and present-time orientation?

• A. Douglas
• B. Hyman
• C. Feinstein
• D. Sugarman

Answer: (D)

The main idea is identifying who linked a specific set of cultural traits to how some working‑class pupils approach education. Sugarman argued that four features characterize the working‑class pupil subculture, shaping attitudes to school: fatalism (the belief that outcomes are determined by luck or fate and not by personal effort), present‑time orientation (focus on immediate needs and rewards rather than long‑term planning), collectivism (strong loyalty to family and peers that can take precedence over individual educational goals), and an external locus of control (the belief that success is controlled by external forces rather than one’s own actions). These traits help explain why some students may be less inclined to invest in schooling that promises future payoffs, especially when the school system rewards planning and long‑term effort. Other scholars have different focal points, but Sugarman is the one associated with this four‑trait model, including the two traits mentioned.